English suffixes,
actually explained

Names a collective action, process or result: dam becomes damage.

From Latin "-aticum" via Old French: forms nouns of action, result, condition, or collective. Courage, voyage, heritage, lineage, visage, homage, vintage, language, bondage, foliage.

Turns a verb or adjective into the noun naming that state or quality: import becomes importance.

From Germanic "-hard" (persistently excessive): forms pejorative nouns for a person who takes a negative trait to excess. Drunkard, braggart, dullard, dotard, laggard.

Biochemical suffix naming enzymes: lipase = the enzyme that breaks down fats.

From Latin "caedere" (to kill): names either the act of killing or the agent that kills. Homicide, pesticide.

Forms compounds naming a specialized skill, art, or type of vehicle: aircraft, spacecraft, witchcraft, stagecraft, statecraft, wordcraft.

From Greek "kytos" (hollow vessel, cell): names specific types of cells. Erythrocyte, leukocyte, lymphocyte.

Names a state, condition or domain: free becomes freedom.

From Greek "ektome" (excision): names surgeries that remove an organ or tissue. Appendectomy, mastectomy.

From French "-ier": forms nouns for a person who works with something or carries out an activity. Pioneer, privateer, profiteer, buccaneer, engineer.

From Greek "haima" (blood): indicates a blood condition or the presence of a substance in the blood. Anemia, leukemia, hyperglycemia.

Turns a verb into the noun that names who or what does that action: teach becomes teacher.

From Old French "-erie": forms nouns of activity, place, collective quality or state. Chivalry, trickery, wizardry, bravery, mockery.

Forms compounds naming types of descent, precipitation, or figurative collapse: downfall, nightfall, rainfall, windfall, pitfall, waterfall, shortfall.

From Greek "genein" (to produce, to originate): names what produces something or the origin of a process. Oxygen, pathogen.

Names recording techniques or disciplines: photo + graphy = photography.

Names a stage of life, a state or a community: child becomes childhood.

Names a doctrine, system, movement or practice: capital becomes capitalism.

Names a person who practises, believes in, or specialises in something: art becomes artist.

Indicates inflammation of an organ or body part: arthr + itis = arthritis.

From Latin "-itudo": forms abstract nouns of state or quality. Solitude, gratitude, magnitude, fortitude.

Turns an adjective into the noun that names that abstract quality: active becomes activity.

Names the person who guards, tends, or manages something: gatekeeper, beekeeper, peacekeeper, timekeeper, shopkeeper, lighthouse keeper.

An old diminutive suffix no longer used to create new words, but still "frozen" inside very common words: napkin, pumpkin, gherkin.

Forms compounds naming territories with a defined identity: homeland, wasteland, heartland, highland, lowland, farmland, woodland.

Forms a closed group of words meaning "a small version of something": bracelet, tablet, droplet, booklet. It is not productive, you cannot add -let to any noun, each word has to be learned on its own.

From Old English "-ling": forms diminutives of young creatures, small beings or subordinate persons. Duckling, fledgling, sibling, underling, changeling.

From Greek "lysis" (loosening, dissolving): indicates decomposition, separation or dissolution. Analysis, dialysis.

Names the person who makes or creates a specific thing: peacemaker, troublemaker, filmmaker, matchmaker, policymaker, dealmaker.

From Greek "mania" (madness, obsession): names a compulsive obsession or extreme passion. Kleptomania.

Forms compounds naming marks, signs, or reference points: hallmark, benchmark, landmark, trademark, earmark, watermark.

Names one who masters or directs something with authority: grandmaster, taskmaster, ringmaster, schoolmaster, headmaster, webmaster.

Turns a verb into the noun that names the action, process or its result: develop becomes development.

From Greek "metron" (to measure): names measuring instruments or metric units. Thermometer, kilometer.

Names the science or system for measuring something: geometry (measuring shapes and space) and symmetry.

From Old English "mangere" (dealer, trader): forms nouns for traders and — more powerfully — spreaders of harmful things. Warmonger, scaremonger, fishmonger, ironmonger.

Turns an adjective into the noun that names that quality or state: happy becomes happiness.

Names a system of rules or the study of how something is organized: astronomy (the study of celestial bodies) and autonomy (self-governance).

Names a science or field of study: bio + ology = biology.

From Greek "-osis" (process, condition): indicates a disease, pathological state or biological process. Fibrosis, psychosis, metamorphosis.

From Greek "pathos" (feeling, suffering): indicates a deep emotion or a disease. Empathy, neuropathy.

Names an intense irrational fear: claustro + phobia = claustrophobia.

From Greek "plastos" (moulded): names reconstructive or cosmetic surgeries. Rhinoplasty, angioplasty.

From Dutch "landschap" (landscape): forms nouns for panoramic views or entire realms. Landscape, seascape, moonscape, cityscape, dreamscape, soundscape, mindscape, cloudscape.

From Greek "skopein" (to look): names instruments for viewing or examining. Microscope, telescope.

Names a relationship, skill or condition: friend becomes friendship.

Variant of -tion that turns verbs into nouns: decide becomes decision.

Names a craftsperson skilled in working a specific material or medium: blacksmith, goldsmith, silversmith, wordsmith, locksmith, gunsmith.

From Greek "soma" (body): names cellular structures or bodies. Chromosome, ribosome.

From Old English "-estre": forms person nouns associated with an activity or group. Trickster, gangster, prankster, youngster, spinster, mobster, hipster.

Forms compounds naming types of stone, places, or concepts involving permanence and foundation: milestone, cornerstone, tombstone, keystone, limestone.

Turns adjectives into nouns naming a dimension or abstract quality: wide becomes width.

From Greek "therapeia" (healing, treatment): names medical or therapeutic methods. Chemotherapy, physiotherapy.

Turns verbs into nouns that name an action or its result: educate becomes education.

From Greek "tome" (cutting): names surgical incisions without removing the organ. Anatomy, tracheotomy.

From Greek "trophe" (nourishment, growth): indicates the nutritional or developmental state of a tissue. Atrophy, hypertrophy, dystrophy.

Turns a verb into a noun naming the result or process: fail becomes failure.

Forms compound nouns naming a type of organized activity, a structure, or a crafted material: teamwork, framework, network, groundwork, handiwork, patchwork.

From Old English "wryhta" (worker, maker): forms nouns for skilled craftsmen and makers. Playwright, wheelwright, shipwright, wainwright, millwright.

The most common affectionate diminutive in English: turns names into tender, childlike, or warm forms. Dog = doggy; sweet = sweetie; dad = daddy; gran = granny.

Turns a verb into an adjective meaning "can be done": wash becomes washable.

From Latin "-ax/-acis": means "full of" or "having the quality of" to a high degree. Tenacious, audacious, malicious, delicious.

Turns a noun into an adjective meaning "related to" or "belonging to": nation becomes national.

Forms adjectives meaning "related to" and nouns naming places or collections: dictionary, laboratory.

Combines with a temperature word to describe someone's temperament: cold-blooded (unemotional, calculating) and hot-blooded (passionate, impulsive).

Forms adjectives about birth: firstborn, newborn, foreign-born (born in another country). Also common in fantasy/historical novels for social class: highborn (noble birth), lowborn (humble birth).

Combines with the word for the carrying medium: air + borne = airborne; water + borne = waterborne.

From the past participle of "bind": forms adjectives meaning "confined by," "heading toward," or "obligated by." Spellbound, earthbound, homebound, hidebound, snowbound, inbound.

Combines with a word, often a small animal, to poke fun at someone's mental sharpness: bird-brained (empty-headed) and scatter-brained (disorganised).

Describes how a person, animal, or talent was raised: well-bred (well-mannered) versus ill-bred (badly raised).

Judges how good a selection was: well-chosen (exactly right) versus poorly-chosen (a bad pick).

Means "dressed in" or "covered with": ivy-clad (covered in ivy) and ironclad (armor-plated; also "foolproof").

Describes how good someone's network of contacts is: well-connected (has influential contacts) versus poorly-connected (few useful contacts).

Describes how something turned out after being cut or shaped: clean-cut (neat, tidy-looking) and well-cut (well-tailored).

Judges how clear the boundaries or meaning of something are: well-defined (clear) versus ill-defined (vague, unclear).

Means "pulled by" or describes how something was created: horse-drawn (pulled by horses) and hand-drawn (drawn by hand).

Judges how appropriately someone is dressed for the occasion: well-dressed versus overdressed (too formal for the setting).

Uses the past participle as an adjective to describe how a person feels: I am bored, she is excited.

Describes the kind of edge something has, literal or figurative: double-edged (cuts both ways) and sharp-edged (sharp, cutting).

From Old English "-en": turns material nouns into adjectives meaning made of or having the qualities of that material. Golden, silken, brazen, ashen, leaden, wooden.

Forms adjectives describing a quality and nouns naming people with that quality: different, student, assistant.

Forms the comparative of short adjectives: big becomes bigger.

Indicates geographic direction or relative position: north becomes northern.

From Italian "-esco": means "in the style of" or "reminiscent of". Kafkaesque, picturesque, grotesque.

Forms the superlative of short adjectives: tall becomes the tallest.

Describes what someone's eyes are like, or how they see the world: wide-eyed (eyes wide open, naive) and eagle-eyed (sharp-sighted, observant).

Describes someone's attitude or expression, literal or moral: two-faced (fake, hypocritical) and straight-faced (keeping a serious expression).

Describes how someone uses force or money: iron-fisted (ruling with an iron fist, authoritarian) and tight-fisted (stingy with money).

From Old English "-feald" (layer, fold): forms multipliers. Tenfold = ten times; manifold = multiple; twofold = double. Very common in journalism and formal prose.

Describes how someone moves or how steady they are: sure-footed (steady, doesn't stumble) and flat-footed (caught off guard; also flat feet).

Judges how solid the basis of a claim or fear is: well-founded (justified, based on good evidence) versus ill-founded (baseless).

Means "without" or "free of": carefree (without worries) and sugar-free (containing no sugar).

Turns a noun into an adjective meaning "full of" or "having": care becomes careful.

Describes a direction, an ongoing activity, or a habit: easygoing (relaxed, easy to get along with) and outgoing (sociable, extroverted).

Describes how sensible or well-supported a person, idea, or theory is: well-grounded (sensible, level-headed) versus poorly-grounded (weakly supported).

Describes how or where something grew: full-grown (fully grown, adult) and home-grown (grown at home, local).

Describes how someone acts or uses their hands: heavy-handed (harsh, lacking tact) and even-handed (fair, impartial).

having a specified type of mental clarity, character, or state of mind

Describes someone's emotional character: warmhearted (kind, affectionate) and coldhearted (unfeeling, unkind).

Used for the type of shoe heel or, figuratively, for financial standing: high-heeled (with a high heel) and well-heeled (wealthy).

Describes something cut or carved, often with a rough finish: rough-hewn (roughly cut, unpolished) and hand-hewn (carved by hand).

Turns proper nouns into style or period adjectives: Orwellian = relating to Orwell's ideas of surveillance and totalitarianism.

Turns a noun into an adjective meaning "of", "relating to" or "characteristic of": economy becomes economic.

Uses the gerund as an adjective to describe what causes a feeling: boring, exciting, interesting.

Judges whether someone's intentions were good or bad: well-intentioned versus ill-intentioned (acting with bad motives).

Adds the nuance of "somewhat", "a bit" or "resembling": red becomes reddish.

Turns a verb or noun into an adjective showing tendency or capacity: create becomes creative.

Judges how well something is maintained: well-kept (neat, well-maintained) versus poorly-kept (neglected).

Describes how united a group or community is: close-knit (tightly bonded) versus loosely-knit (not very cohesive).

Means "loaded with": snow-laden (loaded with snow) and guilt-laden (weighed down by guilt).

Describes the number or type of legs: four-legged (having four legs) and long-legged (having long legs).

Turns a noun into an adjective meaning "without": care becomes careless.

Forms adjectives meaning "similar to X": dreamlike, lifelike, childlike (having a child's qualities, in a positive sense). It is fairly productive, you can attach it to almost any noun.

Describes someone's lips or, figuratively, how much they talk: tight-lipped (saying little) and loose-lipped (talking too freely).

Describes what light something is lit by: candle-lit (lit by candlelight) and well-lit (with good lighting).

Describes how long something lasts: short-lived (lasting only a short time) versus long-lived (lasting a long time).

Means "lasting the entire ___": lifelong (lasting a lifetime) and daylong (lasting all day).

Describes someone's manners or conduct: well-mannered (polite) versus ill-mannered (rude).

Describes someone's way of thinking: open-minded (accepting of new ideas) versus narrow-minded (closed off, intolerant).

Forms position superlatives: innermost, topmost, and with compass points: northernmost, southernmost. Utmost (the greatest possible) and foremost (the leading one) are the two you will use most.

Describes someone's underlying character: good-natured (kind, easygoing) versus ill-natured (bad-tempered).

Describes the shape of a nose or, figuratively, someone's attitude: hard-nosed (tough, practical) and snub-nosed (having a short, upturned nose).

From Greek "eidos" (form): means "shaped like" or "resembling". Android = resembling a human.

Forms adjectives that mean "relating to" or "mandatory" (mandatory, contradictory) and nouns naming a place (dormitory, laboratory).

Turns a noun into an adjective meaning "full of" or "having that quality": danger becomes dangerous.

Describes how fast something moves or unfolds: fast-paced versus slow-paced.

Judges how well something is positioned: well-placed (in the right spot) versus ill-placed (poorly positioned).

Forms adjectives meaning "resistant to" or "that cannot be penetrated or damaged by": bulletproof, waterproof, foolproof, soundproof, fireproof, childproof.

Describes how much someone has read: well-read (widely and deeply read) versus poorly-read (having read little).

Judges how solid an argument's logic is: well-reasoned (logically sound) versus poorly-reasoned (weak logic).

Forms adjectives describing something persistently dominated or plagued by something negative: guilt-ridden, debt-ridden, crime-ridden, anxiety-ridden, corruption-ridden.

Describes how deeply embedded something is: deep-rooted (firmly established) versus shallow-rooted (not well established).

Describes the position or depth of something: deep-set (sunk deeply) and well-set (firmly positioned).

Describes the shape of something, literal or figurative: heart-shaped and pear-shaped.

Describes eyesight or the ability to anticipate the future: farsighted (able to see the bigger picture; also long-sighted) versus shortsighted (lacking foresight; also nearsighted).

Describes skin tone or, figuratively, how sensitive someone is to criticism: thick-skinned (not easily offended) versus thin-skinned (easily offended).

From Old English "-sum": forms adjectives meaning producing that effect or characterised by that quality. Gruesome, winsome, loathsome, wholesome, awesome.

Describes someone's energy or attitude: high-spirited (lively, energetic) and free-spirited (unconventional, independent).

Describes someone's tone or style of speaking: soft-spoken (speaking gently) and outspoken (speaking one's mind bluntly).

Forms adjectives describing someone or something severely affected by an emotion, condition, or calamity: poverty-stricken, grief-stricken, panic-stricken, awe-stricken, drought-stricken.

Forms adjectives describing someone suddenly and intensely affected: awestruck, thunderstruck, starstruck, dumbstruck, moonstruck, horror-struck.

Describes how tense someone's nerves are: high-strung (nervous, easily upset) versus loosely-strung (relaxed).

Describes someone's emotional character: even-tempered (calm, steady) versus hot-tempered (quick to anger).

Judges whether the moment chosen for something was right: well-timed versus ill-timed (badly timed).

Describes how someone talks: silver-tongued (persuasive, eloquent) and sharp-tongued (cutting, harsh in speech).

Describes something torn apart by conflict: war-torn (devastated by war) and strife-torn (torn apart by internal conflict).

Judges how well-crafted a phrase or sentence is: well-turned (elegantly phrased) versus ill-turned (clumsily phrased).

Means "full of" or "abundant in that quality": turbulent, virulent, fraudulent.

Describes how much someone knows about a subject: well-versed (highly knowledgeable) versus poorly-versed (having little knowledge).

Describes how strong someone's willpower is: strong-willed (determined) versus weak-willed (easily swayed).

Describes the type or size of wings: broad-winged (having broad wings) and swift-winged (fast in flight).

Describes how quickly someone thinks: quick-witted (sharp, fast-thinking) versus dim-witted (slow, not very sharp).

Describes something worn down by time or use: timeworn (worn by time) and careworn (worn out by worry).

Means "worked" or "crafted", literal or emotional: hand-wrought (crafted by hand) and overwrought (overly excited, on edge).

Turns a noun into an adjective meaning "full of" or "having": rain becomes rainy.

Turns an adjective into an adverb that describes how something is done: slow becomes slowly.

Turns a direction word into a direction adverb/adjective: inward, outward, forward. Works with almost any direction word, it is productive.

Combines with some, no, every, any and else to form location adverbs: somewhere, nowhere, everywhere, anywhere, elsewhere. Five basic words you will use constantly.

Turns a word into an adverb of manner or direction: otherwise, likewise, clockwise. It is also used freely today to mean "in terms of X": money-wise, career-wise, weather-wise.

Turns a root into an action verb: activ + ate = activate; celebrat + ate = celebrate.

Turns an adjective into a verb meaning "to make X" or "to become X": dark becomes darken.

From Old English "-nian": turns adjectives into causative verbs meaning to make more X or to become X. Darken, enlighten, deepen, strengthen, heighten.

From Latin "-ficare" (to make): turns nouns or adjectives into verbs meaning to make X or to become X. Magnify, rectify, petrify, glorify, vilify, mortify.

Turns a noun or adjective into a verb meaning "to make" or "to convert into": simple becomes simplify.

Turns a noun or adjective into a verb meaning "to make" or "to convert into": modern becomes modernize.

Added to question words (what, who, where, when, how, which) to create free relatives meaning "no matter what/who/where/when/how/which."

Forms compounds naming types of fire or gunfire: gunfire, crossfire, campfire, hellfire, wildfire, ceasefire, backfire.

Forms reflexive and emphatic pronouns: my + self = myself.

Forms compounds naming a place next to or at the edge of something: bedside, fireside, lakeside, hillside, ringside, alongside.

Forms compounds naming periods, moments, or eras with a distinct identity: lifetime, peacetime, wartime, pastime, overtime, daytime, nighttime, bedtime.

Forms adjectives and adverbs meaning "extending throughout, covering the whole of": nationwide, worldwide, citywide, statewide, industry-wide.